Gottlob Frege （戈特洛布·弗雷格）弗里德里希·路德维希·戈特洛布·弗雷格（德语：Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege，宽式IPA：/ˈɡɔtlop ˈfʁeːɡə/；1848年11月8日－1925年7月26日），著名德国数学家、逻辑学家和哲学家。是数理逻辑和分析哲学的奠基人。
ontological /╷ɒntə╵lɒdʒikl;╷ɑntə╵lɑdʒikəl/ adj: ontological speculation 本体论的演绎.
Chapter 5. Self-reference / liar paradox
Eubulides 欧布利德斯 BC400 希腊逻辑学家
Russell’s paradox Now, consider the set of all those sets that are not members of themselves. Call this R. Is R a member of itself, or is it not? If it is a member of itself, then it is one of the things that is not a member of itself, and so it is not a member of itself. If, on the other hand, it is not a member of itself, it is one of those sets that are not members of themselves, and so it is a member of itself. It would seem that R both is and is not a member of itself. This paradox was discovered by Bertrand Russell, whom we met in Chapter 4, and so is called Russell’s paradox.Like the liar paradox, it has a cousin. What about the set of all sets that are members of themselves. Is this a member of itself, or is it not? Well, if it is, it is; and if it is not, it is not. Again, there would seem to be nothing to determine the matter either way.
Chapter 9 . Identity and change
Leibniz 莱布尼茨
Chapter 10. Vagueness / slope slippery (Fuzzy theory)
sorites paradoxes 连锁诡辩
A standard form of the argument is to the effect that by adding one grain of sand at a time, one can never form a heap; ‘sorites’ comes from soros’, the Greek for heap.)
Example: A person who is 5 years old is a (biological) child. If someone is a child, they are still a child one second later. In which case, they are still a child one second after that, and one second after that, and one second after that. . . . So after 630,720,000 seconds, they are still a child. But then they are 25 years old!
Chapter 11
actuaries 精算师
Chapter 13. Decision theory (expectation, 期望值理论)
Blaise Pascal 帕斯卡 17世纪法国科学家、神学家。
Pascal’s Wager
Chapter 15
Euclid 欧几里得 BC4-3世纪希腊数学家